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Reliability

Ethics is a branch of philosophy which examines questions about human conduct, specifically addressing questions of what is right and wrong, just and unjust, virtuous and non-virtuous in such conduct. Thus many questions or claims are, in one way or another, issues of ethics. We normally refer to “an ethical decision” by way of a judgement as to whether someone did the right thing, but any decision can be an ethical one if one simply means that there is an ethical component that should be considered as part of it.

 

Given that an ethical decision is a decision which has an ethical component, and that ethics addresses questions of right and wrong in human behaviour, it should be obvious that ethical decision-making is something everyone is actually very familiar with, whether they are aware of this or not. A decision to participate in a protest about a newly proposed government policy is an ethical decision, as is a decision to knowingly falsify an income tax return, as is a decision to tell a cashier that they have given you too much change after your purchase, as is a decision to go to war.

There are two types of ethical decision-making challenges: ethical dilemmas and tests of integrity. Both can be difficult, but they present different kinds of challenges.

1. Ethical dilemmas occur when it is hard to determine what the right course of action is. This may arise from competing moral considerations or when all available options seem equally bad. The difficulty lies in figuring out what is the "right thing to do."

2. Tests of integrity occur when the right course of action is clear, but it is difficult to follow through. This could be because doing the right thing is unpopular, involves personal sacrifice, or is obstructed by external pressures such as bribery, blackmail, or significant personal gain. The difficulty here is in actually doing what is known to be right, not in identifying it.

In some cases, a decision may involve both aspects—first figuring out the right thing to do (ethical dilemma) and then struggling to act on it (test of integrity). While both types of challenges are difficult, ethical dilemmas focus on resolving uncertainty about the right action, while tests of integrity focus on overcoming personal, social, or external barriers to doing the right thing.

 

Ethics could be considered subjective when judgments are based on individual perspectives, emotions, or societal norms, making them variable and context-dependent. Ethical relativism argues that this is the case for all ethical beliefs, with what is "right" or "wrong" depending upon cultural or personal beliefs. “When in Rome, do as the Romans do” is common way of expressing this view – slavery, or having people killed in the arena for entertainment might seem wrong to you, but there’s nothing inherently unethical about it for an ethical relativist. Just look at ancient Rome! Just because you, or your society might consider it wrong, there is nothing objective in that view.

Alternatively, ethics could be considered objective if/when moral principles are seen as universally true, independent of personal feelings, cultural beliefs, or individual circumstances. Philosophers like Immanuel Kant argue for objective moral laws, such as the categorical imperative, which suggests that certain actions are inherently right or wrong. Kant argued that such moral laws were based on reason – something that is shared by everyone. Religious frameworks also often claim objective ethics, rooted in divine commands or universal truths.

So which view is right, or at least, most helpful? While it is true that some values do appear to differ depending on where (or when) you are, is also clear that at least some ethical values do not appear to be entirely subjective or relative. Certain values do not actually vary between different societies. For example, every culture has prohibitions on murder or theft. Other moral instincts, such as fairness and valuing cooperation over selfishness, are also consistently valued across different cultures. Whether this is due to religious ideas, or evolutionary psychology (e.g. a group that never learns to work together is unlikely to survive over time when faced with different challenges), it is hard to argue that absolutely everything varies from place to place, even if some things do

 

It is possible that there may be multiple acceptable answers to some ethical questions, but that is not the same as saying that all answers are equally valid. Ethical pluralism, distinct from relativism, acknowledges that while there may be several correct answers, there are also clear wrong ones, grounded in objective standards of logic, relevance, and societal benefit. Ethical pluralism recognises that while multiple valid answers to ethical questions may exist, they are not infinite or entirely subjective. Some solutions are objectively better or worse based on logical, societal, and practical considerations. 

It is the idea that there can be more than one correct answer to many ethical questions, recognising both objective standards and the complexity of moral issues. It occupies a middle ground between objectivism—which claims only one correct answer exists—and subjectivism or relativism—which argues that all opinions are equally valid.

Does it mean everyone can be right? No, ethical pluralism does not mean that everyone can be right. While pluralism allows for multiple reasonable answers to ethical questions, it does not suggest that all views are equally valid. In fact, ethical pluralism explicitly rejects this type of relativism. Ethical pluralism provides a way of navigating moral diversity. It allows people with different beliefs—religious or non-religious—to engage with shared standards of right and wrong while respecting diverse perspectives. It balances open-mindedness with rigorous evaluation, fostering thoughtful and inclusive ethical discussions.

 

 

Anticipating ethical challenges and understanding different traditions of ethical reasoning (see cards: What is consequentialism - can the ends justify the means in certain situations?, What is deontology - are some actions just always right or wrong?, What is Virtue Ethics and why is it important?) equip decision-makers to choose the best—or least harmful—course of action. This reflection is particularly vital in high-stakes environments, such as the military, where ethical missteps can lead to grave consequences, such as loss of trust or endangerment of lives.

By thinking through likely scenarios and considering different ethical perspectives, we can improve decision-making and ensure AI benefits the widest range of users. Identifying and addressing ethical issues involves understanding potential dilemmas, recognising conflicts between values, and fostering critical reflection. We can start by asking: 

By incorporating ethical pluralism into AI development, we can create systems that reflect both the complexity of human values and fulfil the promise of technological innovation.